A Warrior's Daughter


"A Warrior's Daughter," first published in Everybody's Magazine in 1902 and later collected in American Indian Stories (1921), is one of the earliest short stories by a Native American woman to appear in a mainstream American publication. In it, Zitkala-Sha reverses the conventions of the captivity narrative, placing a young Dakota woman at the center of a daring rescue mission.

The story follows Tusee from childhood through young womanhood. When her lover is captured by an enemy tribe and put on display during a victory dance, Tusee does not wait for rescue. Alone and armed only with a knife and her wits, she infiltrates the enemy camp, outwits a boasting warrior, and frees the captive, carrying him to safety on her own shoulders.

Written at a time when Native American voices were largely excluded from American letters, the story draws on Dakota oral tradition and cultural detail while asserting Indigenous women's agency and courage. Zitkala-Sha's prose moves between the intimate rhythms of family life and the high tension of the rescue, making "A Warrior's Daughter" both a vivid adventure and a quiet act of cultural reclamation.


Flashcards

In the afternoon shadow of a large tepee, with red-painted smoke lapels, sat a warrior father with crossed shins. His head was so poised that his eye swept easily the vast level land to the eastern horizon line.

He was the chieftain's bravest warrior. He had won by heroic deeds the privilege of staking his wigwam within the great circle of tepees.

He was also one of the most generous gift givers to the toothless old people. For this he was entitled to the red-painted smoke lapels on his cone-shaped dwelling. He was proud of his honors. He never wearied of rehearsing nightly his own brave deeds. Though by wigwam fires he prated much of his high rank and widespread fame, his great joy was a wee black-eyed daughter of eight sturdy winters. Thus as he sat upon the soft grass, with his wife at his side, bent over her bead work, he was singing a dance song, and beat lightly the rhythm with his slender hands.

His shrewd eyes softened with pleasure as he watched the easy movements of the small body dancing on the green before him.

Tusee is taking her first dancing lesson. Her tightly-braided hair curves over both brown ears like a pair of crooked little horns which glisten in the summer sun.

With her snugly moccasined feet close together, and a wee hand at her belt to stay the long string of beads which hang from her bare neck, she bends her knees gently to the rhythm of her father's voice.

Now she ventures upon the earnest movement, slightly upward and sidewise, in a circle. At length the song drops into a closing cadence, and the little woman, clad in beaded deerskin, sits down beside the elder one. Like her mother, she sits upon her feet. In a brief moment the warrior repeats the last refrain. Again Tusee springs to her feet and dances to the swing of the few final measures.

Just as the dance was finished, an elderly man, with short, thick hair loose about his square shoulders, rode into their presence from the rear, and leaped lightly from his pony's back. Dropping the rawhide rein to the ground, he tossed himself lazily on the grass. "Hunhe, you have returned soon," said the warrior, while extending a hand to his little daughter.

Quickly the child ran to her father's side and cuddled close to him, while he tenderly placed a strong arm about her. Both father and child, eyeing the figure on the grass, waited to hear the man's report.

"It is true," began the man, with a stranger's accent. "This is the night of the dance."

"Hunha!" muttered the warrior with some surprise.

Propping himself upon his elbows, the man raised his face. His features were of the Southern type. From an enemy's camp he was taken captive long years ago by Tusee's father. But the unusual qualities of the slave had won the Sioux warrior's heart, and for the last three winters the man had had his freedom. He was made real man again. His hair was allowed to grow. However, he himself had chosen to stay in the warrior's family.

"Hunha!" again ejaculated the warrior father. Then turning to his little daughter, he asked, "Tusee, do you hear that?"

"Yes, father, and I am going to dance tonight!"

With these words she bounded out of his arm and frolicked about in glee. Hereupon the proud mother's voice rang out in a chiding laugh.

"My child, in honor of your first dance your father must give a generous gift. His ponies are wild, and roam beyond the great hill. Pray, what has he fit to offer?" she questioned, the pair of puzzled eyes fixed upon her.

"A pony from the herd, mother, a fleet-footed pony from the herd!" Tusee shouted with sudden inspiration.

Pointing a small forefinger toward the man lying on the grass, she cried, "Uncle, you will go after the pony tomorrow!" And pleased with her solution of the problem, she skipped wildly about. Her childish faith in her elders was not conditioned by a knowledge of human limitations, but thought all things possible to grown-ups.

"Hähob!" exclaimed the mother, with a rising inflection, implying by the expletive that her child's buoyant spirit be not weighted with a denial.

Quickly to the hard request the man replied, "How! I go if Tusee tells me so!"

This delighted the little one, whose black eyes brimmed over with light. Standing in front of the strong man, she clapped her small, brown hands with joy.

"That makes me glad! My heart is good! Go, uncle, and bring a handsome pony!" she cried. In an instant she would have frisked away, but an impulse held her tilting where she stood. In the man's own tongue, for he had taught her many words and phrases, she exploded, "Thank you, good uncle, thank you!" then tore away from sheer excess of glee.

The proud warrior father, smiling and narrowing his eyes, muttered approval, "Howo! Hechetu!"

Like her mother, Tusee has finely pencilled eyebrows and slightly extended nostrils; but in her sturdiness of form she resembles her father.

A loyal daughter, she sits within her tepee making beaded deerskins for her father, while he longs to stave off her every suitor as all unworthy of his old heart's pride. But Tusee is not alone in her dwelling. Near the entrance-way a young brave is half reclining on a mat. In silence he watches the petals of a wild rose growing on the soft buckskin. Quickly the young woman slips the beads on the silvery sinew thread, and works them into the pretty flower design. Finally, in a low, deep voice, the young man begins:

"The sun is far past the zenith. It is now only a man's height above the western edge of land. I hurried hither to tell you tomorrow I join the war party."

He pauses for reply, but the maid's head drops lower over her deerskin, and her lips are more firmly drawn together. He continues:

"Last night in the moonlight I met your warrior father. He seemed to know I had just stepped forth from your tepee. I fear he did not like it, for though I greeted him, he was silent. I halted in his pathway. With what boldness I dared, while my heart was beating hard and fast, I asked him for his only daughter.

"Drawing himself erect to his tallest height, and gathering his loose robe more closely about his proud figure, he flashed a pair of piercing eyes upon me.

"'Young man,' said he, with a cold, slow voice that chilled me to the marrow of my bones, 'hear me. Naught but an enemy's scalp-lock, plucked fresh with your own hand, will buy Tusee for your wife,' Then he turned on his heel and stalked away."

Tusee thrusts her work aside. With earnest eyes she scans her lover's face.

"My father's heart is really kind. He would know if you are brave and true," murmured the daughter, who wished no ill-will between her two loved ones.

Then rising to go, the youth holds out a right hand. "Grasp my hand once firmly before I go, Hoye. Pray tell me, will you wait and watch for my return?"

Tusee only nods assent, for mere words are vain.

At early dawn the round camp-ground awakes into song. Men and women sing of bravery and of triumph. They inspire the swelling breasts of the painted warriors mounted on prancing ponies bedecked with the green branches of trees.

Riding slowly around the great ring of cone-shaped tepees, here and there, a loud-singing warrior swears to avenge a former wrong, and thrusts a bare brown arm against the purple east, calling the Great Spirit to hear his vow. All having made the circuit, the singing war party gallops away southward.

Astride their ponies laden with food and deerskins, brave elderly women follow after their warriors. Among the foremost rides a young woman in elaborately beaded buckskin dress. Proudly mounted, she curbs with the single rawhide loop a wild-eyed pony.

It is Tusee on her father's warhorse. Thus the war party of Indian men and their faithful women vanish beyond the southern skyline.

A day's journey brings them very near the enemy's borderland. Nightfall finds a pair of twin tepees nestled in a deep ravine. Within one lounge the painted warriors, smoking their pipes and telling weird stories by the firelight, while in the other watchful women crouch uneasily about their center fire.

By the first gray light in the east the tepees are banished. They are gone. The warriors are in the enemy's camp, breaking dreams with their tomahawks. The women are hid away in secret places in the long thicketed ravine.

The day is far spent, the red sun is low over the west.

At length straggling warriors return, one by one, to the deep hollow. In the twilight they number their men. Three are missing. Of these absent ones two are dead; but the third one, a young man, is a captive to the foe.

"He-he!" lament the warriors, taking food in haste.

In silence each woman, with long strides, hurries to and fro, tying large bundles on her pony's back. Under cover of night the war party must hasten homeward. Motionless, with bowed head, sits a woman in her hiding-place. She grieves for her lover.

In bitterness of spirit she hears the warriors' murmuring words. With set teeth she plans to cheat the hated enemy of their captive. In the meanwhile low signals are given, and the war party, unaware of Tusee's absence, steal quietly away. The soft thud of pony-hoofs grows fainter and fainter. The gradual hush of the empty ravine whirrs noisily in the ear of the young woman. Alert for any sound of footfalls nigh, she holds her breath to listen. Her right hand rests on a long knife in her belt. Ah, yes, she knows where her pony is hid, but not yet has she need of him. Satisfied that no danger is nigh, she prowls forth from her place of hiding. With a panther's tread and pace she climbs the high ridge beyond the low ravine. From thence she spies the enemy's camp-fires.

Rooted to the barren bluff the slender woman's figure stands on the pinnacle of night, outlined against a starry sky. The cool night breeze wafts to her burning ear snatches of song and drum. With desperate hate she bites her teeth.

Tusee beckons the stars to witness. With impassioned voice and uplifted face she pleads:

"Great Spirit, speed me to my lover's rescue! Give me swift cunning for a weapon this night! All-powerful Spirit, grant me my warrior-father's heart, strong to slay a foe and mighty to save a friend!"

In the midst of the enemy's camp-ground, underneath a temporary dance-house, are men and women in gala-day dress. It is late in the night, but the merry warriors bend and bow their nude, painted bodies before a bright center fire. To the lusty men's voices and the rhythmic throbbing drum, they leap and rebound with feathered headgears waving.

Women with red-painted cheeks and long, braided hair sit in a large half-circle against the willow railing. They, too, join in the singing, and rise to dance with their victorious warriors.

Amid this circular dance arena stands a prisoner bound to a post, haggard with shame and sorrow. He hangs his disheveled head.

He stares with unseeing eyes upon the bare earth at his feet. With jeers and smirking faces the dancers mock the Dakota captive. Rowdy braves and small boys hoot and yell in derision.

Silent among the noisy mob, a tall woman, leaning both elbows on the round willow railing, peers into the lighted arena. The dancing center fire shines bright into her handsome face, intensifying the night in her dark eyes. It breaks into myriad points upon her beaded dress. Unmindful of the surging throng jostling her at either side, she glares in upon the hateful, scoffing men. Suddenly she turns her head. Tittering maids whisper near her ear:

"There! There! See him now, sneering in the captive's face. 'Tis he who sprang upon the young man and dragged him by his long hair to yonder post. See! He is handsome! How gracefully he dances!"

The silent young woman looks toward the bound captive. She sees a warrior, scarce older than the captive, flourishing a tomahawk in the Dakota's face. A burning rage darts forth from her eyes and brands him for a victim of revenge. Her heart mutters within her breast, "Come, I wish to meet you, vile foe, who captured my lover and tortures him now with a living death."

Here the singers hush their voices, and the dancers scatter to their various resting-places along the willow ring. The victor gives a reluctant last twirl of his tomahawk, then, like the others, he leaves the center ground. With head and shoulders swaying from side to side, he carries a high-pointing chin toward the willow railing. Sitting down upon the ground with crossed legs, he fans himself with an outspread turkey wing.

Now and then he stops his haughty blinking to peep out of the corners of his eyes. He hears some one clearing her throat gently. It is unmistakably for his ear. The wing-fan swings irregularly to and fro. At length he turns a proud face over a bare shoulder and beholds a handsome woman smiling.

"Ah, she would speak to a hero!" thumps his heart wildly.

The singers raise their voices in unison. The music is irresistible. Again lunges the victor into the open arena. Again he leers into the captive's face. At every interval between the songs he returns to his resting-place. Here the young woman awaits him. As he approaches she smiles boldly into his eyes. He is pleased with her face and her smile.

Waving his wing-fan spasmodically in front of his face, he sits with his ears pricked up. He catches a low whisper. A hand taps him lightly on the shoulder. The handsome woman speaks to him in his own tongue. "Come out into the night. I wish to tell you who I am."

He must know what sweet words of praise the handsome woman has for him. With both hands he spreads the meshes of the loosely woven willows, and crawls out unnoticed into the dark.

Before him stands the young woman. Beckoning him with a slender hand, she steps backward, away from the light and the restless throng of onlookers. He follows with impatient strides. She quickens her pace. He lengthens his strides. Then suddenly the woman turns from him and darts away with amazing speed. Clinching his fists and biting his lower lip, the young man runs after the fleeing woman. In his maddened pursuit he forgets the dance arena.

Beside a cluster of low bushes the woman halts. The young man, panting for breath and plunging headlong forward, whispers loud, "Pray tell me, are you a woman or an evil spirit to lure me away?"

Turning on heels firmly planted in the earth, the woman gives a wild spring forward, like a panther for its prey. In a husky voice she hissed between her teeth, "I am a Dakota woman!"

From her unerring long knife the enemy falls heavily at her feet. The Great Spirit heard Tusee's prayer on the hilltop. He gave her a warrior's strong heart to lessen the foe by one.

A bent old woman's figure, with a bundle like a grandchild slung on her back, walks round and round the dance-house. The wearied onlookers are leaving in twos and threes. The tired dancers creep out of the willow railing, and some go out at the entrance way, till the singers, too, rise from the drum and are trudging drowsily homeward. Within the arena the center fire lies broken in red embers. The night no longer lingers about the willow railing, but, hovering into the dance-house, covers here and there a snoring man whom sleep has overpowered where he sat.

The captive in his tight-binding rawhide ropes hangs in hopeless despair. Close about him the gloom of night is slowly crouching. Yet the last red, crackling embers cast a faint light upon his long black hair, and, shining through the thick mats, caress his wan face with undying hope.

Still about the dance-house the old woman prowls. Now the embers are gray with ashes.

The old bent woman appears at the entrance way. With a cautious, groping foot she enters. Whispering between her teeth a lullaby for her sleeping child in her blanket, she searches for something forgotten.

Noisily snored the dreaming men in the darkest parts. As the lisping old woman draws nigh, the captive again opens his eyes.

A forefinger she presses to her lip. The young man arouses himself from his stupor. His senses belie him. Before his wide-open eyes the old bent figure straightens into its youthful stature. Tusee herself is beside him. With a stroke upward and downward she severs the cruel cords with her sharp blade. Dropping her blanket from her shoulders, so that it hangs from her girdled waist like a skirt, she shakes the large bundle into a light shawl for her lover. Quickly she spreads it over his bare back.

"Come!" she whispers, and turns to go; but the young man, numb and helpless, staggers nigh to falling.

The sight of his weakness makes her strong. A mighty power thrills her body. Stooping beneath his outstretched arms grasping at the air for support, Tusee lifts him upon her broad shoulders. With half-running, triumphant steps she carries him away into the open night.


Frequently Asked Questions

What is "A Warrior's Daughter" by Zitkala-Ša about?

A Warrior's Daughter follows Tusee, a young Dakota woman raised by a proud warrior father. When her lover is captured during a raid and bound to a post in the enemy's camp to be mocked, Tusee does not wait to be rescued or for others to act. She stays behind when the war party retreats, infiltrates the enemy's victory dance disguised as an old woman, lures the boasting captor into the dark and kills him, then frees her lover and carries him to safety on her shoulders. The story spans Tusee's life from childhood — learning to dance at her father's knee — through her coming of age as a woman whose courage matches or exceeds the warriors around her.

What is the main theme of "A Warrior's Daughter"?

The central theme is female courage and agency within a warrior culture. Zitkala-Ša subverts the traditional captivity narrative by making a woman the rescuer rather than the rescued. Tusee's father sets a warrior's test for her suitor — bring back an enemy's scalp — but it is Tusee herself who ultimately fulfills this challenge. The story argues that bravery, loyalty, and honor are not gendered traits, and that Dakota women possessed the strength and resourcefulness to act decisively in moments of crisis. Alongside this, the story celebrates cultural identity and family bonds, showing how Tusee's upbringing in a warrior household shaped her character from early childhood.

Who is Tusee in "A Warrior's Daughter"?

Tusee is the protagonist and the "warrior's daughter" of the title. She is introduced as a child of eight, dancing before her proud father, a chieftain's bravest warrior entitled to red-painted smoke lapels on his tepee. As she grows into a young woman, Tusee is skilled in beadwork and devoted to her father, but she also possesses his fierce spirit. When her lover is captured by enemies, Tusee stays behind alone, armed with a long knife, and carries out a daring solo rescue. She disguises herself as a bent old woman, kills the warrior who captured her lover, cuts his bonds, and physically carries him away on her shoulders. Literary critic Paula Gunn Allen described Tusee as "a powerful woman whose beauty, desirability, and femininity cannot lessen her warrior devotion, loyalty, and honor."

How does Zitkala-Ša reverse gender roles in "A Warrior's Daughter"?

The story begins with a familiar folktale structure: a father sets a warrior's task — bringing an enemy's scalp — as the price for his daughter's hand in marriage. In a traditional tale the young man would complete the quest and win the bride. Instead, Zitkala-Ša inverts the pattern entirely. The young warrior is captured and becomes the helpless prisoner. It is Tusee who infiltrates the enemy camp alone, uses her beauty to lure the captor away from the dance, kills him with her knife, and then physically carries her weakened lover to freedom. The final image — Tusee bearing her lover on her broad shoulders with "half-running, triumphant steps" — completes the reversal. She accomplishes the very deed her father demanded of the young man, claiming agency and heroism for herself.

When was "A Warrior's Daughter" published?

A Warrior's Daughter was first published in 1902 in Volume 6 of Everybody's Magazine, making it one of the earliest short stories by a Native American woman to appear in a mainstream American publication. Zitkala-Ša later included it in her 1921 collection American Indian Stories, published by Hayworth Publishing House. The story was written during a period when Zitkala-Ša was also publishing autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and her collection Old Indian Legends (1901), establishing herself as one of the most prominent Native American literary voices of the early twentieth century.

Who was Zitkala-Ša?

Zitkala-Ša (pronounced zit-KAH-lah SHAH), meaning "Red Bird" in Lakota, was the pen name of Gertrude Simmons Bonnin (1876–1938), a Yankton Dakota writer, educator, musician, and political activist. Born on the Yankton Indian Reservation in South Dakota, she was taken at age eight to a Quaker boarding school in Indiana, an experience she later wrote about with searing honesty. She studied at Earlham College and the New England Conservatory of Music, then published autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly (1900), the story collection Old Indian Legends (1901), and American Indian Stories (1921). Beyond literature, she co-wrote the opera The Sun Dance Opera (1913), edited the American Indian Magazine, and co-founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926. In 2020, the U.S. Mint honored her on the Native American one-dollar coin.

What literary devices does Zitkala-Ša use in "A Warrior's Daughter"?

Zitkala-Ša employs several notable literary devices. Narrative subversion is the most prominent: the story opens with a familiar folktale structure (father sets a bride-price quest) then inverts it completely when the woman becomes the hero. Imagery is vivid and sensory throughout — the "red-painted smoke lapels" of the father's tepee, the "myriad points" of firelight on Tusee's beaded dress, the "soft thud of pony-hoofs" fading in the empty ravine. Simile links Tusee to predatory animals: she prowls "with a panther's tread and pace" and springs "like a panther for its prey." Dramatic irony operates in the enemy camp scene, where the captor believes a beautiful woman is flirting with him, not realizing she is the Dakota woman who will kill him. Contrast between the disguise of the bent old woman and Tusee's youthful strength creates a powerful moment of revelation when she straightens "into its youthful stature" before the captive's eyes.

What does Tusee's disguise symbolize in "A Warrior's Daughter"?

When Tusee enters the enemy dance-house disguised as a bent old woman carrying a bundle on her back, the disguise operates on multiple symbolic levels. On the surface, it is a tactical choice — she hides her youth and strength to move undetected among drowsy revelers. But the transformation also symbolizes the power of underestimation. The enemies see only a harmless grandmother, just as the captor earlier saw only a flirting woman rather than a lethal warrior. The moment Tusee drops the disguise and "the old bent figure straightens into its youthful stature" before her lover's eyes represents a revelation of her true nature — not the maiden others see, but a warrior in her own right. The bundle she carries, which looks like a sleeping grandchild, becomes a shawl for her lover, transforming a prop of deception into an act of care.

How does "A Warrior's Daughter" end?

The ending is both dramatic and triumphant. After the enemy's victory dance winds down and the camp falls asleep, Tusee enters the dance-house disguised as an old woman. She reaches the captive, reveals her true identity, and cuts his bonds with her knife. But the young man is too weak to walk — he staggers and nearly falls. In the story's most powerful image, "the sight of his weakness makes her strong." Tusee stoops beneath his arms, lifts him onto her broad shoulders, and carries him away "with half-running, triumphant steps" into the open night. The story ends there, with Tusee bearing her lover to freedom, completing her transformation from dutiful daughter to warrior heroine.

Why is "A Warrior's Daughter" important in American literature?

A Warrior's Daughter holds a significant place in American literary history for several reasons. It is one of the earliest published short stories by a Native American woman, appearing in Everybody's Magazine in 1902 when Indigenous voices were almost entirely excluded from mainstream publications. The story challenges the Western literary tradition of the captivity narrative — a genre that typically depicted Native Americans as captors and white women as victims — by presenting a Native woman as the courageous rescuer. It also preserves Dakota cultural details — tepee customs, dance traditions, the significance of red-painted smoke lapels — at a time when federal policy actively suppressed Native culture through boarding schools and forced assimilation. Increasingly taught in school curricula today, the story is recognized as a pioneering work of both Native American literature and feminist literature.

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